Slavery – San Diego, Then & Now

DSA Night School
November 28, 2023

Did you know that California—including San Diego—has a sordid history rife with slavery? It’s not what you might initially think when you hear the word “slavery.” DSA San Diego’s Education Committee takes a look at San Diego’s history of slavery and how it exists today.

Timeline

September 28, 1542

Juan Rodriguez Cabrillo, a Portuguese navigator, led a Spanish expedition and discovered a "landlocked and very good harbor." He named it San Miguel, as it was the feast day of that saint.

November 10, 1602

Sebastian Vizcaíno, a Spanish-Basque explorer, reached San Diego bay with his expedition of three ships, two hundred men, and three Carmelite friars. He renamed the harbor San Diego, after his flagship and the feast day of the saint occurring two days later.

July 1, 1769

Father Junípero Serra, a Franciscan friar, and Don Caspar de Portola, a Spanish Capitan, founded the first Spanish colony in Alta California, in present-day San Diego

July 16, 1769

Father Serra established the Mission San Diego de Alcalá

September 5, 1774

First meeting of the Continental Congress in Philadelphia - American colonial governments coordinated their resistance to British rule

November 4, 1775

Kumeyaay warriors burned down the Mission Basilica San Diego de Alcalá, one year after its completion

July 4, 1776

U.S. Declaration of Independence adopted - the 13 American colonies severed their political connections to Great Britain

March 1, 1781

Confederation Congress took the reins of government

March 4, 1789

New U.S. government began operation under the Constitution. Included the Fugitive Slave Clause (Article IV, Sec. 2, Clause 3)

1821-1823

Mexico gains independence from Spain

1823

The 21st and final mission was founded in San Francisco

1824

Mexican Constitution - equality of all citizens, including Indians

1829

Slavery was abolished in the Mexican province of California

1833-1834

Missions became secularized

1846-1848

The Mexican-American War led to the annexation of California by the United States.

February 2, 1848

The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo officially ended the Mexican-American War

1848

Gold discovered in California

Late 1849

California Constitutional Convention met to form the first constitution of California

March 27, 1850

San Diego incorporated as a city

April 22, 1850

California Act for the Government and Protection of Indians signed into law

September 9, 1850

An Act for the Admission of the State of California into the Union (part of the Compromise of 1850) passed

September 18, 1850

Fugitive Slave Act of 1850 (part of the Compromise of 1850) passed

1851

San Diego Tax Rebellion of 1851, aka Garra Uprising - conflict between San Diego Indians and settlers

1852

California Fugitive Slave Act

1860

California amended its 1855 Common School Act to bar "Negroes, Mongolians, and Indians" from public schools

January 1, 1863

President Abraham Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation

June 28, 1864

Fugitive Slave Acts repealed

December 6, 1865

Congress ratified the 13th Amendment abolishing slavery - prison labor exception to emancipation (beginning of prison industrial complex)

February 3, 1870

Congress ratified the 15th Amendment of the U.S. Constitution affirming the right of all U.S. citizens to vote

1875

President Ulysses S. Grant issued an executive order establishing reservations for several Diegueño bands

1891

Relief for the Mission Indians Act - created reservations for all of the California Indians who had been forced off their lands.

1915-1916

Panama-California Exposition: San Diego and California native cultures are overlooked at the "Indian Village," which instead focused on Navajo, Hopi, Apache, and other tribes of the Southwest.

June 2, 1924

President Calvin Coolidge signed the Indian Citizenship Act into law, granting citizenship to Indians born in the U.S.

June 28, 1930

Governing Body of the International Labour Office met in Geneva and adopted the Forced Labour Convention, 1930, “to suppress the use of forced or compulsory labour in all its forms within the shortest possible period”

June 18, 1934

Congress passed the Indian Reorganization Act - promoted Native-American autonomy by prohibiting allotment of tribal lands, returning some surplus land, and urging tribes to engage in active self-government.

1937

Act for the Government and Protection of Indians repealed

1952

Indians get full right to vote. They are now able to vote for local politicians

1958

Rancheria Act - allowed tribes to vote on a plan to divide communal tribal property into parcels to be distributed to its members. Distributees would receive title to their lands and be free to sell it and be obliged to pay property tax from that time forward. (purpose: assimilation)

1990

The "Native American Grave Protection and Repatriation Act" passed by Congress

1994

The Native American Environmental Protection Coalition (NAEPC) is founded in Southern California to share common concerns and bring a team effort to the protection, preservation, and restoration of the environment. NAEPC is headquartered in Valley Center.

2000

Victims of Trafficking and Violence Protection Act (Trafficking Act) of 2000

November 30, 2004

President George W. Bush signed the California Mission Preservation Act into law

November 2012

California voters passed Proposition 35 (the CASE Act), a California Against Slavery citizen initiative with over 81% approval

2017

California AB 1227 (Human Trafficking Prevention Education and Training Act) became law

June 18, 2019

Governor Gavin Newsom signed Executive Order N-15-19, formally apologizing to all California Native Americans

June 17, 2021

President Joe Biden signed Senate Bill 475, establishing Juneteenth as a federal holiday

September 29, 2022

Governor Gavin Newsom signed Assembly Bill 1655, establishing Juneteenth as a state holiday

March 21, 2023

San Diego Mayor Todd Gloria and City Council designated Juneteenth an official paid holiday for city employees

2023

Legislation is being advanced to remove “involuntary servitude” from the California state constitution

November 2024

California voters will decide whether to adopt the proposed amendment if it passes in the California legislature by a two-thirds vote

Sources & Further Reading

Books

Pfaelzer, Jean. California, a Slave State. United Kingdom: Yale University Press, 2023.
(San Diego Public Library | San Diego County Library)

By Topic

What is Slavery?

Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary, s.v. “slavery,” accessed November 21, 2023, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/slavery.

Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary, s.v. “chattel,” accessed November 21, 2023, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/chattel.

International Labor Organization – Forced Labour Convention, 1930 (No. 29)
https://www.ilo.org/dyn/normlex/en/f?p=NORMLEXPUB:12100:0::NO::P12100_ILO_CODE:C029

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forced_labour

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forced_labor_in_California

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_California

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Labor_trafficking_in_the_United_States

A Teacher’s Guide to Historical and Contemporary Kumeyaay Culture, A Supplemental Resource for Third and Fourth Grade Teachers
https://mtrp.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/07/KumeyaayGuide.pdf

Mesa Grande Band of Diegueño Mission Indians – History
https://www.mesagrandeband-nsn.gov/history/

San Diego Kumeyaay Tribes – Study on poverty and education related statistics on Kumeyaay reservations in San Diego County
https://storymaps.arcgis.com/stories/229fb553f7b944d589ea38a8efbee61b

Museum of Us
https://museumofus.org/

1769-1823 Mission Period

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spanish_missions_in_the_Americas

https://californiamissionsfoundation.org/california-indians/

Indian Labor at the California Missions Slavery or Salvation?
https://sandiegohistory.org/journal/1978/april/labor/

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/California_genocide

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pauma_massacre

Untold History: The Survival of California’s Indians
https://www.pbssocal.org/shows/tending-the-wild/untold-history-the-survival-of-californias-indians

The dark, terrible secret of California’s missions
https://www.sfgate.com/opinion/openforum/article/The-dark-terrible-secret-of-California-s-missions-2685666.php

Junípero Serra
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jun%C3%ADpero_Serra

https://californiamissionsfoundation.org/serra/

Sebastian Vizcaíno
https://sandiegohistory.org/archives/biographysubject/vizcaino/

Francisco Palóu
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francisco_Pal%C3%B3u

Fermín Francisco de Lasuén
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferm%C3%ADn_de_Lasu%C3%A9n

Mission San Diego de Alcalá – History
https://www.missionsandiegohistory.org/english

San Diego Mission Church
https://www.nps.gov/nr/travel/american_latino_heritage/San_Diego_Mission_Church.html

Indigenous San Diego
https://chicanohistory.sdsu.edu/chapter01/c01.html

Revolting Indians, Passive resistance to colonial rule
https://www.sandiegoreader.com/news/2000/jul/20/revolting-indians/

https://www.foundsf.org/index.php?title=NATIVE_AMERICANS_in_the_MISSION_ECONOMY

https://www.foundsf.org/index.php?title=The_%22Good_Old_Mission_Days%22_Never_Existed

Post-Mission Period

A Second Century of Dishonor: Federal Inequities and California Tribes (1996)
https://www.aisc.ucla.edu/ca/tribes.htm

University of Oklahoma College of Law Digital Commons
American Indian and Alaskan Native Documents in the Congressional Serial Set: 1817-1899
Mission Indians in California
https://digitalcommons.law.ou.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=5550&context=indianserialset

Secularization of the Missions
https://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/disp_textbook.cfm?smtID=3&psid=540

“At a meeting of Fitzgerald’s Volunteers…” San Diego Herald (December 5, 1851)
http://calindianhistory.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/11/12_04_1851_At_meeting_SDH_2_4.pdf

1848-1958
https://www.bia.gov/regional-offices/pacific/who-we-are

The Garra Uprising: Conflict between San Diego Indians and Settlers in 1851
https://www.jstor.org/stable/25154158
Evans, William Edward. “The Garra Uprising: Conflict between San Diego Indians and Settlers in 1851.” California Historical Society Quarterly 45, no. 4 (1966): 339–49. https://doi.org/10.2307/25154158.

San Diego History: Garra’s Uprising
https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1992-08-10-me-4992-story.html

The Indians of southern California in 1852; the B.D. Wilson report and a selection of contemporary comment.
https://www.loc.gov/resource/calbk.051?st=pdf&pdfPage=1

Free Soil, Unfree Labor: Cave Johnson Couts and the Binding of Indian Workers in California, 1850-1867
https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1525/phr.2004.73.3.349
MAGLIARI, M. “FREE SOIL, UNFREE LABOR.” Pacific Historical Review 73, no. 3 (2004): 349–90. https://doi.org/10.1525/phr.2004.73.3.349.

The Trajectory of Indian Country in California: Rancherias, Villages, Pueblos, Missions, Ranchos, Reservations, Colonies, and Villages, Pueblos, Missions, Ranchos, Reservations, Colonies, and Rancherias (2008)
https://digitalcommons.law.utulsa.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?httpsredir=1&article=2654&context=tlr

How one author uncovered the fact that California was — and remains — a slave state
https://www.latimes.com/entertainment-arts/books/story/2023-06-28/how-the-author-of-california-a-slave-state-revised-our-too-sunny-history

How California Became a ‘Slave State’ (links to a video “The Case for Reparations”)
https://www.kqed.org/forum/2010101893691/how-california-became-a-slave-state

State of California Native American Heritage Commission – California Indian History
https://nahc.ca.gov/native-americans/california-indian-history/

San Diego Indians and the Federal Government Years of Neglect, 1850-1865
https://sandiegohistory.org/journal/1980/july/neglect/

Indian Labor In San Diego County, California, 1850-1900
https://www.kumeyaay.com/indian-labor-in-san-diego-county,-california,-1850-1900.html

1915-16 Panama California Exposition

Panama-California Exposition – Native Americans Come to Balboa Park
https://sandiegohistory.org/archives/amero/1915expo/ch3/

Panama-California Exposition ~ San Diego ~ 1915-1916 (photos)
https://sandiegohistory.org/collection/photographs/sdexpo6/

1915-16 Panama California Exposition, Fr. Serra Memorial
https://www.sandiego.gov/digital-archives-photos/1915-16-panama-california-exposition-fr-serra-memorial

https://www.sandiego.gov/digital-archives-photos/1915-16-panama-california-exposition-varied-industries-building

https://www.atlasobscura.com/places/panama-california-sculpture-court-casa-del-prado-san-diego

https://www.sandiego.gov/digital-archives-photos/looking-west-el-prado-pedestrian-walkway-casa-del-prado

Present-Day

‘It’s Called Genocide’: Newsom Apologizes to the State’s Native Americans (June 19, 2019)
https://www.nytimes.com/2019/06/19/us/newsom-native-american-apology.html

Governor Newsom Issues Apology to Native Americans for State’s Historical Wrongdoings, Establishes Truth and Healing Council (June 18, 2019)
https://www.gov.ca.gov/2019/06/18/governor-newsom-issues-apology-to-native-americans-for-states-historical-wrongdoings-establishes-truth-and-healing-council

Executive order N-15-19
https://www.gov.ca.gov/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/6.18.19-Executive-Order.pdf

About the California Truth & Healing Council
https://tribalaffairs.ca.gov/cthc/about/

An apology to Native Americans was buried in a 2010 defense bill. Now, some want the president to say it aloud. (July 30, 2021)
https://www.washingtonpost.com/religion/an-apology-to-native-americans-was-buried-in-a-2010-defense-bill-now-some-want-the-president-to-say-it-aloud/2021/07/30/2094d60a-f163-11eb-bf80-e3877d9c5f06_story.html

https://www.govinfo.gov/app/details/BILLS-111sjres14is

S. J. RES. 14 – To acknowledge a long history of official depredations and ill-conceived policies by the Federal Government regarding Indian tribes and offer an apology to all Native Peoples on behalf of the United States. (introduced in Senate April 30, 2009; no vote)
https://www.congress.gov/111/bills/sjres14/BILLS-111sjres14is.pdf

California, a “Free State” Sanctioned Slavery
https://californiahistoricalsociety.org/blog/california-a-free-state-sanctioned-slavery/

African-Americans

Nathan Harrison was San Diego County’s first black homesteader and a local legend.
https://www.nps.gov/people/nathan-harrison.htm

Black Pioneers in San Diego 1880 – 1920
https://sandiegohistory.org/journal/1981/april/blacks/

Slavery case unfolded in San Diego courtroom 75 years ago (July 5, 2022)
https://www.kpbs.org/news/local/2022/07/05/slavery-case-unfolded-in-san-diego-courtroom-75-years-ago

The slavery case in San Diego County riveted the nation (September 22, 2022)
https://spectrumnews1.com/ca/la-west/la-times-today/2022/09/23/the-slavery-case-in-san-diego-county-riveted-the-nation

10 Historic Milestones of San Diego’s Black Community
https://sandiegomagazine.com/everything-sd/people/10-historic-milestones-of-san-diegos-black-community/

Japanese Americans Revisit Redress to Reparations Task Force (October 7, 2022)
https://www.pacificcitizen.org/japanese-americans-revisit-redress-to-reparations-task-force

AB 3121: Task Force to Study and Develop Reparation Proposals for African Americans
https://oag.ca.gov/ab3121

California is the first state to tackle reparations for Black residents. What that really means
https://calmatters.org/explainers/reparations-california/

Mayor, City Council Make Juneteenth a Paid Holiday for City Employees (March 21, 2023)
https://www.sandiego.gov/mayor/juneteenth-paid-holiday-for-city-employees

Human Trafficking

Freedom Denied: Forced Labor in California (February 2005)
https://humanrights.berkeley.edu/sites/default/files/publications/freedom-denied-february-2005.pdf

The Typology of Modern Slavery: Defining Sex and Labor Trafficking in the United States (March 1, 2017)
https://polarisproject.org/resources/the-typology-of-modern-slavery-defining-sex-and-labor-trafficking-in-the-united-states/

Sex Trafficking

Action Guide: Trafficking Prevention for LGBTQ+ Communities in San Diego (September 29, 2022)
https://polarisproject.org/resources/action-guide-trafficking-prevention-for-lgbtq-communities-in-san-diego/

HIDDEN SLAVES: Forced Labor in the United States (PDF), Human Rights Center, University of California, Berkeley, September 2004, ISBN 0-9760677-0-6, archived from the original (PDF) on August 30, 2007

Fighting Human Trafficking
https://www.sandiego.gov/cityattorney/divisions/criminal/npu/fighting-human-trafficking

Human Trafficking Prevention & Intervention
https://lifelinecs.org/human-trafficking

California Against Slavery – About Us
https://californiaagainstslavery.org/about-us/

https://theuglytruthsd.org/get-the-facts/

https://theuglytruthsd.org/prevention/#1465328336639-be55f4da-44a7

San Diego County District Attorney
https://www.sdcda.org/preventing/human-trafficking/human-trafficking-faqs
https://www.sdcda.org/preventing/human-trafficking/

2022/2023 San Diego County Grand Jury Report (filed May 23, 2023)
AB 1227 Human Trafficking: The Fight Against Child Trafficking
https://www.sandiegocounty.gov/content/dam/sdc/grandjury/reports/2022-2023/AB%201227%20Human%20Trafficking%20-%20The%20Fight%20Against%20Child%20Trafficking%20Report.pdf

2018/2019 San Diego County Grand Jury 2018/2019 (filed May 30, 2019)
Human Trafficking: San Diego Needs Essential Services
https://www.sandiegocounty.gov/content/dam/sdc/grandjury/reports/2018-2019/HumanTraffickingReport.pdf

Final Report – Human Trafficking In California – California Alliance to Combat Trafficking and Slavery Task Force (October 2007)
https://www.dcjs.virginia.gov/sites/dcjs.virginia.gov/files/publications/victims/human-trafficking-california-final-report-california-alliance-combat-trafficking-and-slavery-task.pdf

The Nature and Extent of Gang Involvement in Sex Trafficking in San Diego County (April 2016)
https://www.ojp.gov/pdffiles1/nij/grants/249857.pdf

48 people arrested in San Diego after months-long human trafficking investigation (February 22, 2023)
https://abc7chicago.com/san-diego-human-trafficking-sex-slaves-slavery-operation-better-pathways/12863034/

Migrant Laborers

Estimating Labor Trafficking among Unauthorized Migrant Workers in San Diego (2014)
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/261710511_Estimating_Labor_Trafficking_among_Unauthorized_Migrant_Workers_in_San_Diego

Zhang, S. X. (2012). Trafficking of Migrant Laborers in San Diego County: Looking for a Hidden Population. San Diego, CA: San Diego State University. https://www.ojp.gov/pdffiles1/nij/grants/240223.pdf

Horrors of labor trafficking remain hidden with spotlight on sex trafficking (December 1, 2019)
https://www.castla.org/horrors-of-labor-trafficking-remain-hidden-with-spotlight-on-sex-trafficking
Originally from: https://www.sandiegouniontribune.com/news/public-safety/story/2019-12-01/horrors-of-labor-trafficking-struggle-to-gain-same-public-recognition-as-sex-trafficking

https://californiaagainstslavery.org/

Forced Prison Labor

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prison%E2%80%93industrial_complex#Prison_labor

Federal Prison Industries/UNICOR
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federal_Prison_Industries

Prison Industry Enhancement Certification Program (PIECP)
https://bja.ojp.gov/program/piecp/overview

https://www.prisonpolicy.org/origin/ca/2020/county.html

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_California_state_prisons

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_J._Donovan_Correctional_Facility

For $1 an hour, inmates fight California fires. ‘Slave labor’ or self-improvement? (October 20, 2017)
https://www.sandiegouniontribune.com/opinion/the-conversation/sd-how-much-are-california-inmate-firefighters-paid-to-fight-wildfires-20171020-htmlstory.html

https://worthrises.org/theprisonindustry2020

If Prison Workers are Essential, We Should Treat Them Like It: Prison Labor in the US, Part I (August 5, 2020)
https://corpaccountabilitylab.org/calblog/2020/8/5/if-prison-workers-are-essential-we-should-treat-them-like-it-prison-labor-in-the-us-part-i

Private Companies Producing with US Prison Labor in 2020: Prison Labor in the US, Part II (August 5, 2020)
https://corpaccountabilitylab.org/calblog/2020/8/5/private-companies-producing-with-us-prison-labor-in-2020-prison-labor-in-the-us-part-ii

California and Nevada may ban forced prison labor, servitude (February 16, 2023)
https://www.kpbs.org/news/politics/2023/02/16/california-and-nevada-may-ban-forced-prison-labor-servitude

Beyond Juneteenth: The Lingering Reality of Slavery in US Prisons (June 29, 2023)
https://www.laprogressive.com/prison-reform-2/beyond-juneteenth

End Slavery in California (ACA 8)
https://aclucalaction.org/bill/aca-8/
Report: Captive Labor – Exploitation of Incarcerated Workers (2022)

https://leginfo.legislature.ca.gov/faces/billNavClient.xhtml?bill_id=202320240ACA8

College panel takes aim at ‘prison-industrial complex’ (November 14, 2019)
https://thecoastnews.com/college-panel-takes-aim-at-prison-industrial-complex/

Uprooting a culture of Mass Incarceration (January 17, 2020)
https://www.palomar.edu/telescope/2020/01/17/uprooting-a-culture-of-mass-incarceration/

Governor Newsom Signs AB 32 to Halt Private, For-Profit Prisons and Immigration Detention Facilities in California (October 11, 2019)
https://www.gov.ca.gov/2019/10/11/governor-newsom-signs-ab-32-to-halt-private-for-profit-prisons-and-immigration-detention-facilities-in-california/

Appellate Court Finds California’s Private Prison Ban Is Likely Unconstitutional (Oct 6, 2022)
https://immigrationimpact.com/2022/10/06/california-private-prison-ban-unconstitutional/

California tried and failed to ban for-profit ICE detention centers (June 28, 2023)
https://www.latimes.com/politics/story/2023-06-28/california-private-detention-ban-overturned-future

California tried and failed to ban for-profit ICE detention centers (July 4, 2023)
https://www.hawaiitribune-herald.com/2023/07/04/nation-world-news/california-tried-and-failed-to-ban-for-profit-ice-detention-centers-what-does-that-mean-for-other-states/

Colorado banned forced prison labor 5 years ago. Prisoners say it’s still happening (November 13, 2023)
https://www.npr.org/2023/11/13/1210564359/slavery-prison-forced-labor-movement

From Cages to the Community: Prison Profiteers and the Treatment Industrial Complex (March 6, 2018)
https://www.prisonlegalnews.org/news/2018/mar/6/cages-community-prison-profiteers-and-treatment-industrial-complex/

Federal Law

Fugitive Slave Laws

Constitution of 1789 – Fugitive Slave Clause (Article IV, Section 2, Clause 3)
https://constitution.congress.gov/browse/essay/artIV-S2-C3-1/ALDE_00013571/

An Act Respecting Fugitives from Justice, and Persons Escaping from the Service of Their Masters of 1793 – Fugitive Slave Act of 1793
https://oag.ca.gov/system/files/media/ch39-ca-reparations.pdf

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fugitive_Slave_Act_of_1850

https://constitutioncenter.org/the-constitution/historic-document-library/detail/the-fugitive-slave-act-1850

Compromise of 1850 (1850)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compromise_of_1850

https://www.archives.gov/milestone-documents/compromise-of-1850

https://guides.loc.gov/compromise-1850

An Act for the Admission of the State of California into the Union (1850)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/An_Act_for_the_Admission_of_the_State_of_California

https://www.loc.gov/resource/llsalvol.llsal_009/?sp=480

Emancipation Proclamation (1863)

https://www.archives.gov/milestone-documents/emancipation-proclamation

13th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution: Abolition of Slavery (1865)

https://www.archives.gov/milestone-documents/13th-amendment

15th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution: Voting Rights (1870)

https://www.archives.gov/milestone-documents/15th-amendment

The Dawes Act (1887)

https://www.nps.gov/articles/000/dawes-act.htm

https://www.archives.gov/milestone-documents/dawes-act

https://guides.loc.gov/chronicling-america-dawes-act-commission

Indian Citizenship Act (1924)

On this day, all American Indians made United States citizens
https://constitutioncenter.org/blog/on-this-day-in-1924-all-indians-made-united-states-citizens

https://www.loc.gov/item/today-in-history/june-02/

Indian Reorganization Act (1934)

https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/COMPS-5299/pdf/COMPS-5299.pdf

U.S. Code regarding Indians

25 U.S.C.
United States Code, 2009 Edition
Title 25 – INDIANS
CHAPTER 14 – MISCELLANEOUS
SUBCHAPTER XXV – INDIANS OF CALIFORNIA
https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/USCODE-2009-title25/html/USCODE-2009-title25-chap14-subchapXXV.htm

25 U.S.C.
United States Code, 2002 Edition
Title 25 – INDIANS
CHAPTER 19 – INDIAN LAND CLAIMS SETTLEMENTS
SUBCHAPTER XII – TORRES-MARTINEZ DESERT CAHUILLA INDIANS CLAIMS SETTLEMENT
Sec. 1778 – Congressional findings and purpose
https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/USCODE-2002-title25/html/USCODE-2002-title25-chap19-subchapXII-sec1778.htm

Victims of Trafficking and Violence Protection Act of 2000

https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/BILLS-106hr3244enr/pdf/BILLS-106hr3244enr.pdf

California Mission Preservation Act (2004)

https://www.congress.gov/108/plaws/publ420/PLAW-108publ420.pdf

https://digitalcommons.wcl.american.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1083&context=aulr

California State Law

1850 Act for the Government and Protection of Indians

https://www.loc.gov/item/2001696098/

https://www.courts.ca.gov/documents/IB.pdf

California Fugitive Slave Act of 1852

https://www.aclunc.org/sites/goldchains/explore/gold-rush.html

https://www.aclunc.org/docs/FINAL_California_Fugitive_Slave_Act.pdf

Common Schools

1852 Amendment to the California State Education Code: Chapter 53 (An act to establish a System of Common Schools.)
https://oac.cdlib.org/view?docId=hb796nb4hm&brand=oac4&doc.view=entire_text

Tape v. Hurley
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tape_v._Hurley